Table 3 Comparison of various CPV vaccines

Inactivated and Live-attenuated vaccines

Whole CPV virus or COPV

Native virus

Alum, None

Provided protection against CPV; prevented oral papillomatosis but risked adverse outcomes like carcinoma

[13], [60], [44, 71]

DNA-Based Vaccines

L1, E1, E2 genes

Plasmid vectors

None specified

Induced humoral and cell-mediated immunity; protected against experimental challenge

[14]; [15]; [61]; [73]; [75]

Recombinant Protein Vaccines (e.g. Virus-Like Particles, VLPs)

L1 and L2 capsid proteins, as well as E1, E2

Baculovirus-infected insect cells (e.g., Sf9), adenovirus, tobacco plants, TMV-based platforms

Alum, QS21, or not specified

Induced robust humoral and cellular immune responses; prevented experimental papillomas; provided cross-protection and therapeutic efficacy in preclinical models

[54, 61, 63, 76, 80, 82]

Multimeric L2 Vaccines

L2 epitopes from multiple CPV types

E. coli, TMV-based platforms

Alum, RIBI

Elicited cross-neutralizing antibodies; effective against multiple papillomavirus types

[17]; [78]

Potential therapeutic Vaccines

E1, E2

Recombinant adenovirus

None specified

Reduced wart burden; prevented lesion development in therapeutic settings

[57]; [76]